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Role Of Vitamin C In Human Body
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Vitamins Early On In Nutritional Research We Recognized That There Were Some Substances In Foods That Were Vital For Life. Since The 1900s The Study Of.
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Submission Received: 21 September 2017 / Revised: 30 October 2017 / Accepted: 31 October 2017 / Published: 3 November 2017
Vitamin C is an essential micronutrient for humans and has pleiotropic activity associated with its ability to donate electrons. It is a powerful antioxidant and cofactor for a family of biosynthetic and gene regulatory enzymes. Vitamin C contributes to immune defense by supporting various cellular functions of the innate and adaptive immune system. Vitamin C supports epithelial barrier function against pathogens and promotes skin antioxidant activity, which may protect against environmental oxidative stress. Vitamin C accumulates in phagocytic cells, such as neutrophils, and can enhance chemotaxis, phagocytosis, reactive oxygen species generation, and ultimately microbial killing. It is also required for removal of spent neutrophils from sites of infection by apoptosis and macrophages, thereby reducing necrosis/netosis and possible tissue damage. The role of vitamin C in lymphocytes is not clear, but it has been shown to enhance the differentiation and proliferation of B- and T-cells, possibly due to its gene regulatory effects. Vitamin C deficiency weakens the immune system and increases susceptibility to infections. Conversely, infections significantly affect vitamin C levels due to increased inflammation and metabolic demands. Additionally, supplementation with vitamin C appears to prevent and treat respiratory and systemic infections. At least adequate dietary vitamin C intake is required, if not saturating plasma levels (ie, 100-200 mg/day) that optimize cellular and tissue levels to prevent infection. In contrast, treatment of established infections requires significantly higher (gram) doses of the vitamin to compensate for the increased inflammatory response and metabolic demand.
What Are The Benefits Of Vitamin C For The Skin?
The immune system is a multifaceted and complex network of specialized organs, tissues, cells, proteins, and chemicals that have evolved to protect the host from a variety of pathogens such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites. as cancer cells [1]. It can be divided into epithelial barriers, and cellular and humoral components of innate (non-specific) and acquired (specific) immunity [1]. These components interact in multiple and highly complex ways. More than half a century of research has shown that vitamin C is a critical player in various aspects of the immune system, especially in immune cell function [2, 3].
Vitamin C is an essential nutrient that cannot be synthesized in humans due to the loss of a key enzyme in the biosynthetic pathway [4, 5]. Severe vitamin C deficiency results in the potentially fatal disease scurvy [6]. Scurvy is characterized by weakening of collagen structures, poor wound healing and weakened immunity. People with scurvy are highly susceptible to deadly infections such as pneumonia [7]. Conversely, infections can significantly affect vitamin C levels due to enhanced inflammation and metabolic demands. In the early stages, scurvy was noted to occur mostly after infectious epidemics in the population [7], and cases of scurvy were reported after respiratory infections [8]. This is especially true for people who are already malnourished.
Although the amount of vitamin C needed to prevent scurvy is relatively low (ie ~10 mg/day) [9] , the recommended dietary intake for vitamin C is hundreds of times higher than for most other vitamins [10] . A diet providing 100–200 mg/day of vitamin C is sufficient to saturate plasma concentrations in healthy individuals and should cover normal requirements to reduce chronic disease risk [ 11 , 12 ]. Because the body has little storage capacity for water-soluble vitamins, regular and adequate intake is necessary to prevent hypovitaminosis C. Epidemiological studies have shown that hypovitaminosis C (plasma vitamin C <23 μmol/L) is relatively common in Western countries. population, and vitamin C deficiency (<11 μmol/L) is the fourth leading nutrient deficiency in the United States [ 13 , 14 ]. There are several reasons why vitamin C dietary recommendations are not met, even in countries where dietary availability and supply are expected to be adequate. These include poor dietary habits, life stages and/or lifestyles that restrict or increase micronutrient requirements (eg, smoking and alcohol or drug abuse), various diseases, exposure to pollutants and smoke (both active and passive), and economic Reasons (poor socioeconomic status and limited access to nutritious food) [15, 16]. Otherwise, 'healthy' people in industrialized countries may be at risk due to lifestyle-related factors, such as dieting or eating an unbalanced diet and people experiencing excessive physical or psychological stress [15, 16].
Vitamin C has a number of activities that could conceivably contribute to its immune-modulating effects. It is a very effective antioxidant, due to its ability to readily donate electrons, from oxidants generated during normal cell metabolism and from exposure to toxins and pollutants (eg, cigarette smoke) [17]. Vitamin C is a cofactor for a family of biosynthetic and gene regulatory monooxygenase and dioxygenase enzymes [18, 19]. The vitamin has long been known as a cofactor for lysyl and prolyl hydroxylases, required to stabilize the tertiary structure of collagen, and a cofactor for two hydroxylases involved in the biosynthesis of carnitine, a molecule required to transport fatty acids into the mitochondria for generation. metabolic energy (Figure 1) [19].
Best Source Of Vitamin C In Foods And Drinks
Vitamin C is a cofactor for hydroxylase enzymes involved in the synthesis of catecholamine hormones, e.g., norepinephrine, and amidated peptide hormones, e.g., vasopressin, which are central to the cardiovascular response to severe infections [20]. Furthermore, research over the past 15 years or so has uncovered novel roles for vitamin C in regulating gene transcription and cell signaling pathways, regulating transcription factor activity and epigenetic marks (Figure 1) [21, 22]. For example, the pleiotropic transcription factor hypoxia inducible factor-1α (HIF-1α) uses asparagyl and prolyl hydroylase as a vitamin C cofactor [21]. Recent research has shown an important role for vitamin C in the regulation of DNA and histone methylation by acting as a cofactor for enzymes that hydroxylate these epigenetic marks [22].
Our review explores the diverse roles of vitamin C in the immune system, including barrier integrity and leukocyte function, and discusses potential mechanisms of action. We discuss the relevance of the immune-modulating effects of vitamin C in infections and conditions leading to vitamin C deficiency.
The skin has many essential functions, the primary of which is to act as a barrier against external insults, including pathogens. The epidermal layer is highly cellular and is composed primarily of keratinocytes, while the dermal layer is composed of fibroblasts that secrete collagen fibers, the main component of the dermis [23]. Skin contains millimolar concentrations of vitamin C, with higher levels found in the epidermis than in the dermis [24, 25, 26]. Vitamin C is transported into epidermal and dermal cells via sodium-dependent vitamin C transporters (SVCT) isoforms 1 and 2 [27]. actively accumulates, suggesting that the vitamin has critical functions in the skin. Clues to the role of vitamin C in the skin come from the symptoms of vitamin C deficiency scurvy, characterized by bleeding gums, bruising, and impaired wound healing. It is thought to be a result of vitamin C’s role as a factor
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