The Role Of Omega Fatty Acids – Coagulation factor deficiencies as a cause of abnormal uterine bleeding in women of reproductive age: a review of the literature
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The Role Of Omega Fatty Acids
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Foods Rich In Omega 3 Fatty Acids — Benefits
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By Susmita Sinha Susmita Sinha Scilit Preprints.org Google Scholar View publications 1, Mainul Haque Mainul Haque Scilit Preprints.org Google Scholar View publications 2, 3, * , Halyna Lugova Halyna Lugova Scilit Preprints.org Google Scholar View publications 4 and Santosh Kumar Santosh Kumar Scilit Preprints.org Google Scholar View publications 5
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Department of Physiology, Khulna City Medical College and Hospital, 33 KDA Avenue, Hotel Royal Crossing, Khulna Sadar, Khulna 9100, Bangladesh
Pharmacology Unit, Faculty of Defense Medicine and Health, Universiti Pertahanan Nasional Malaysia (National Defense University of Malaysia), Kem Perdana Sungai Besi, Kuala Lumpur 57000, Malaysia
Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, UCSI Springhill University Campus (Seremban/PD), No. 2, Avenue 3, Persiaran Springhill, Port Dickson 71010, Malaysia
Application received: April 23, 2023 / Revised: May 27, 2023 / Accepted: June 2, 2023 / Published: June 5, 2023
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Insulin resistance is a critical pathophysiological process influencing the onset and development of type 2 diabetes. It is well known that changes in lipid metabolism and abnormal fat accumulation effectively cause the development of insulin resistance. Adapting dietary habits and appropriate weight management are crucial in treating, managing and reducing the risk of T2DM, as obesity and lack of exercise are the main factors responsible for the worldwide increase in T2DM cases. Omega-3 fatty acids are one of the polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), which include long-chain omega-3 fatty acids such as eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid, commonly found in fish oils. Omega-3 and omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA; 3 and 6 PUFA) are essential to human health because they serve as metabolic precursors to eicosanoids, a class of signaling molecules necessary to control inflammation in the body. Since humans cannot produce either omega-3 or omega-6 PUFA, both are essential nutrients. Long-standing concerns about the effects of long-chain omega-3 fatty acids in the treatment of diabetes have been supported by experimental studies that have shown significant increases in fasting glucose levels after supplementation with omega-3 fatty acids and foods rich in PUFAs and omega-3 fatty acids. Cellular explanations for the association between inflammation and IR include mitochondrial dysfunction, endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, and oxidative stress. Modifications in the lipid composition of mitochondrial membranes and/or signaling through receptors may be part of the mechanism of activation of mitochondrial fusion by fish oil/omega-3 fatty acids. The precise molecular processes by which omega-3 PUFAs control mitochondrial activity to defend against IR radiation are still unknown.
Insulin resistance; type 2 diabetes; omega-3 fatty acids; polyunsaturated fatty acids; mitochondrial dysfunction; endoplasmic reticulum stress; fat tissue; Reactive oxygen species; fish oil; inflammatory pathways
Insulin resistance (IR) is considered to be the decreased responsiveness of peripheral tissues to insulin, and the consequences of IR have been observed to occur several years before type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) [1]. T2DM increases the risk of retinopathy, renal failure, cardiovascular events, and lower limb amputation, thus becoming a leading cause of mortality [2]. Studies have shown that abnormalities in insulin production and/or functioning lead to worsening glycemic control and end in the development of T2DM, which usually leads to dyslipidemia [3]. Since obesity and insufficient physical activity are the main causes of the increasing incidence of T2DM worldwide, adapting dietary habits and appropriate weight control are of fundamental importance in the treatment, containment and reduction of the risk of T2DM [4]. Hypertension, T2DM and obesity are factors causing metabolic syndrome (MetS). The causes of MetS and obesity include inflammation and impaired functioning of adipose tissue [5]. Adipokines, bioactive peptides and lipids secreted by adipose tissue, control inflammation, insulin sensitivity, cardiovascular function and adipose tissue function [6]. In physically active people, adipose tissue secretes large amounts of interleukin-10 (IL-10) and other anti-inflammatory mediators [7].
On the other hand, in obese individuals, adipose tissue secretes many pro-inflammatory adipokines, such as tumor necrosis factor (TNF alpha), monocyte chemoattractant protein 1 (MCP-1), and IL-1beta [8]. The incidence of T2DM can also be minimized if saturated fats are replaced with unsaturated fats [9]. Fatty acids serve as a source of energy, an important component of biological membranes, interact with various receptors and transcription factors, and also act as precursors of paracrine mediators, such as prostaglandins [10].
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IR adversely affects glucose homeostasis in skeletal muscle and liver. Approximately 80% of postprandial glucose utilization occurs in skeletal muscle. Insulin activity and glucose homeostasis are greatly influenced by the reduced glucose uptake that occurs in IR, which is mainly caused by inappropriate control of the glucose transporter-4 (GLUT4) [11]. In a state of insulin resistance, the liver’s ability to regulate gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis is impaired, which impairs the liver’s ability to regulate glucose production. Additionally, poor regulation of lipolysis in white adipose tissue (WAT) is a factor causing hyperlipidemia occurring in states of insulin resistance [12].
Omega-3 fatty acids are one of the polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), which include long-chain omega-3 fatty acids such as eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid. They are commonly found in fish, and vegetable oils containing alpha-linolenic acid include linseed, rapeseed and rapeseed [13]. The American Diabetes Association recommends a Mediterranean diet without supplementation, rich in polyunsaturated, long-chain omega-3 fatty acids and alpha-linolenic acid [14, 15]. UK patients with T2DM are also encouraged to eat fatty fish without supplementation [16]. PUFAs should be replaced with saturated fats to reduce total saturated fat intake and avoid diabetes [17]. Long-standing concerns about the effects of long-chain omega-3 fatty acids in the treatment of diabetes have been supported by experimental studies that have shown significant increases in fasting glucose levels after supplementation with omega-3 fatty acids and foods rich in PUFAs and omega-3 fatty acids. 18]. High amounts of methylmercury and polychlorinated biphenyl have been detected in seafood and fish oil supplements; furthermore, these levels impair insulin signaling and cause increases in fasting glucose levels in animal models [19, 20].
Cellular explanations for the association between inflammation and IR include mitochondrial dysfunction, endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, and oxidative stress. Mitochondria and ER are susceptible to stress in situations of persistent malnutrition and a positive energy balance of the body due to excess nutrients and metabolic demands [21]. Stress experienced by mitochondria and ER triggers the unfolded protein response (UPR), which in turn stimulates major inflammatory processes and impedes insulin action [22]. Dietary supplements and/or biologically active substances with anti-inflammatory effects may be crucial in the prevention and treatment of insulin resistance [23]. Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), a nutrient, have been shown to have bioactive properties associated with their recognized anti-inflammatory properties. The study of the molecular and cellular mechanisms of IR is a key area of research for the evolution of preventive treatments for metabolic disorders that lead to the development of T2DM and associated diseases. Omega-3 PUFAs may influence metabolic activity and the management of insulin resistance in individuals, but further research is needed to fully understand how they influence inflammatory processes and cellular metabolism [24].
This article elucidates potential mechanisms by which dietary omega-3 PUFAs alter ER stress and mitochondrial metabolic activity to halt the progression of IR. Electronic archiving resources used for literature searches included Google Scholar, Science Direct, PubMed, and ResearchGate. The reference list of related works was checked to identify more literature. Keywords include insulin resistance, polyunsaturated fatty acids, PUFAs, omega fatty acids, omega-3 fatty acids, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, endoplasmic reticulum stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, reactive oxygen species (ROS), oxidative stress, fish oil, randomized control trial and inflammatory pathways. Works written in languages other than English and published before 2000 were excluded from the study. The usefulness of the articles was carefully assessed before they were added to the study. Duplicate articles have been removed. Following independent assessment and placement
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